Presentation at Sunstone West Symposium on 30 Jan 2016 in Berkeley, CA.
Watch the presentation here. Starts at minute 17.
Imagine you’re an infant that just left your mother’s womb. You are being welcomed into the world by eager parents. A plethora of possibilities and opportunities await your exploration. Upon your delivery they look at your nude body and note the aesthetics of your genitalia. The doctor announces, “It’s a girl!” In this fractional moment, a socially constructed gender has become your assumed destiny.
Your parents love you and they raise you just as a little girl should
be raised. You have good and happy experiences living as a girl and you seem
content until one day when something in you changes or perhaps you only
recognize what was always there. You ask yourself, “Is this gender, role,
identity, and purpose truly mine or was it simply assigned to me?”
The Family: A Proclamation to the World states “Gender is an essential characteristic
of individual premortal, mortal, and eternal identity and purpose.”[1]
I agree. However, many interpretations of gender are limited and underdeveloped.
Gender is not static or binary and is just as much expressive as
biological. Having an eternal gender does not mean an unchanged destiny.
Eternal means “existing forever”[2]
and to exist is to be in a constant state of change or evolution. Some might
even call it eternal progression. I am not the same yesterday that I am today,
nor will you be the same person tomorrow that you are today, biologically or
mentally.
For example, Mormonism teaches that God is eternal and has existed
forever, yet Joseph Smith taught that God was once as we are now, mortal beings.[3]
This would require God to undergo some sort of Darwinian evolution. Mormon
theology supports a reoccurring theme that progressive change is both eternal
and essential.
Before we broaden our understanding of sexuality and procreation,
first, we’ll need to widen our perceptions of gender. As we deconstruct some
overly simplified schisms of gender, sexuality and procreation, please keep in
mind this is simply a limited introduction to gender and sexuality, not a
comprehensive overview.
Gender
Gender Identity
First, gender identity is a person’s inner sense of being male, female,
a blend of both, or neither. Gender identity may be in likeness or contrast to
biological sex. An individual whose identity matches the gender they were
assigned at birth is cisgender.
Gender identity, though influenced by others, should be determined by
each individual. For example, I identify as a woman. I perceive myself as a
woman and call myself a woman. For another person to assign me a masculine
identity against my own perceptions can lead to a host of negative outcomes.
Gender Expression
Second, is gender expression. This is usually the external appearance of
gender identity. This is expressed through various mannerisms, behaviors,
apparel, style, and voice pitch. Gender expression is mostly predicated on
socially constructed ideals of what constitutes as masculine and feminine. Many
people express some sort of androgyny containing both masculine and feminine
qualities. This classification is highly subjective based upon geographic
location, time period, and belief system.
For example, men regularly wear kilts in Scotland or sulus in Fiji,
while being in perfect compliance with masculine gender norms. However, if a
bruting man with a beard were to wear a skirt to a wedding in the US, many
would consider this a social taboo.
As time passes and society evolves, so do our perceptions of “normal”
gender expression. If a female were to wear pants or trousers in the 19th
century, many people would condemn her of attempting to be too masculine in her
gender expression. However, today, a woman may choose to wear pants and not be
in violation of gender social norms.
Religion also plays a role in this social construct. In LDS Mormonism, some
women designate a specific Sunday as “Wear Pants to Church Day”[4]
that challenges traditional gender stereotypes in a religious context.
Gender expression is a performance, not constrained to any singular
act, but the repetition and ritual of a person performing a gender until it
becomes naturalized.[5] Our
parameters of acceptable gender expression are highly subjective and constantly
changing.
Biological Sex
Dorland’s Medical Dictionary defines sex as “the fundamental
distinction based on the type of gametes produced by the individual.”[6]
Smaller gametes called sperm are assigned male and larger gametes called ovum
are assigned female.
This definition is actually quite fascinating, because it doesn’t
account for chromosomal, genital, or hormonal factors.
While most people fall into the male/female categories, some people are
born with ovotestis, which are gonads that contain both ovarian and testicular
tissue. Some people are born with external male genitalia as well as a fully functional
uterus. Some people may appear completely male or female physically, yet have
XXY chromosomes, while others may be born with very ambiguous genitalia.
If a female is born with abnormally high testosterone levels does this
make her any more biologically male? What about an infertile male that does not
have the ability to produce male gametes, sperm? According to this medical
definition he is no longer male. What a about a woman with a fully functional
vagina and ambiguous penis? Penises are generally considered to be a male trait.
However, she may identify her penis as a feminine, because it’s her penis.
Perhaps our categories of male and female are not as simple as we would
like to believe, and we should recognize the limitations of our medical
terminology in assigning specific body parts with a gender.
People who are born intersex may be subject to invasive surgeries, not
because these surgeries leave the person any healthier from a physical
perspective, although some do, but because by doing so they conform to a
cisnormative culture. There is a wide spectrum of genders physiologically,
socially, and biologically.
Let’s go back to the little girl I mentioned at the beginning. What
happens when her gender identity is in contrast to the gender she was assigned at
birth?
Transgender is one of the
most controversial forms of gender. When these categories don’t perfectly align
to create a cisgender human being some people may become confused, defensive,
or even aggressive. However, God too has also been personified quite
androgynously.
The Bible contains multiple scriptures supporting the notion of a
gender diverse, gender fluid God capable of radical morphology. The Spirit of
God appears in the Bible as a burning bush[7],
a dove[8],
or even invisible[9]. If
these verses are not to be taken literally, why should we take literally the
idea of God being limited to a single male embodiment?
From an LDS perspective, Elder Erastus Snow stated, “If I believe
anything God has ever said anything about himself. . . I must believe that deity
consists of man and woman.”[10]
It is unclear whether this is a description of one embodiment or multiple
embodiments. Genesis states that both females and males are made in the image
of God.[11]
From this we can reevaluate the image of God. God is both male and female in
some form; otherwise woman could not have been made in God’s image. No matter
where a person falls on the gender spectrum, according to the Bible, the image
of God is both male and female.
In contrast to our Biblical narratives, some religious people strangely
contend that a particular type of embodiment comes with a particular type of unchanging
gender identity. If God is not limited by a particular embodiment why should we
limit ourselves and each other to a particular type of embodiment?
Assigning a person’s embodiment a gender comes with a host of social
expectations and limitations that act as a determiner for that person’s life
and future. This idea of gender determinism tends to get the most retaliation when
a person’s biological anatomy does not conform to acceptable forms of sexuality.
Sexuality
Sexuality, like gender, is extremely diverse. For practical purposes
I’ll give a brief overview of just a handful of sexual identities to illustrate
the diversity and nuance of sexuality.
Heterosexual: sexually
attracted to a person of the opposite sex.
Homosexual: sexually
attracted to a person of the same sex.
The problem with these labels is they label sexuality from a
cisnormative perspective while lacking gender identity nuances of people who
identify as genderqueer or agender. If one does not identify as male or female,
identities such as homo and hetero become less useful. More accurate
terminology would identify sexuality independent of gender.
Androphilia: sexual attraction
toward men or masculinity.
Gynephilia: sexual
attraction toward women or femininity.
Bisexual: sexually attracted
to two or more genders, not to be conflated with pansexuality.
Pansexual: sexual attraction
is not limited to any gender on the spectrum.
Skoliosexual: sexually
attracted to people who do not fall on the ends of the gender binaries.
Demisexual: doesn’t usually
experience sexual attraction unless they have formed a strong romantic or
emotional connection with that person; variances include heteroromantic, homoromantic,
biromantic, or aromantic.
Asexual: may find people
aesthetically attractive, but doesn’t necessarily feel sexual desire.
Graysexual: is fluid between
sexual and asexual.
Autosexual: sexually
attracted to themselves, preferring self-gratification over other sexual
activity.
Sapiosexual: finds
intelligence as the most sexually attractive feature.
Polysexual: incorporating
different kinds of sexuality, i.e. a Skolio-Romantic, Bi-Sapiosexual, or Gray-
Autosexual.
As you can see from this brief and incomplete list, sexuality is
diverse, individualized, and unique. Sexual attraction is influenced by a
person’s gender, but not necessarily deterministic.
Technology
Technology is continually shaping our perceptions of gender, sexuality,
and procreation.
Within the last century there has been an explosion of advancements in
reproductive technology. Many religions have come to embrace these technologies
in order to successfully create biological families.
Latter-day Saints have exceptionally positive views of procreation.
Mormon scriptures, prophets, and temple rituals teach that not only are we
encouraged to reproduce, but we are commanded to “multiply and replenish the
earth”[14]
then nurture those children into godhood. Using the power of procreation does
not alienate one from God. It enables mortals to become co-creators with God in
a divine plan of eternal increase. Procreation is seen as a divine partnership.[15]
Church leaders have counseled members to seek inspiration with God as they use
their individual agency to bring children into the world “even in difficult
situations and circumstances.” [16]
What does this mean for infertile individuals, transgender people, or
same sex couples?
Many people encounter difficult challenges when procreating, but reproductive
technologies have allowed humanity to embrace their religious beliefs of
creation while overcoming natural obstacles. Some common forms of assisted
reproductive technology include:
Artificial Insemination: the
deliberate induction of sperm in a female’s uterus or cervix in hopes to
achieve pregnancy when sexual intercourse isn’t a viable option.
In vitro fertilization: method
of assisted reproduction that involves the extraction of an egg and sperm from
each parent. Fertilization of egg and sperm is done manually in a laboratory
dish. The embryo is then transferred back into a uterus for gestation.
In vitro fertilization with
three biological parents: commonly used to prevent the passing on of
mitochondrial disorders to their offspring. The biological mother and father
donate their egg and sperm similarly to the process of in vitro fertilization;
however a third woman donates healthy mitochondria that replace the defected
mitochondria of the first mother’s egg. The altered embryo is transferred into
the uterus of the mother. The child is the biological offspring of three
parents—two mothers and one father.[17]
Surrogacy: embryo is
produced via in vitro fertilization, but the uterus used for gestation is not
the biological parent; they use a surrogate.
A 58-year-old woman in Texas was recently a surrogate for her daughter
and son-in-law who had encountered many difficulties conceiving their own
child. Even though the grandmother already experienced menopause, her uterus
was still functional so she offered her womb to gestate her granddaughter. She
said “It’s such a blessing I can do this for my daughter.” [18]
This exemplifies a recurring theme that technological developments which enable
humans to live out their religious beliefs are seen as a “blessing.”
Uterus Transplant: a healthy
uterus is implanted into a female with a faulty, dysfunctional, or absent
uterus. In 2014, a healthy baby was delivered by a woman who received a uterus
transplant. Dr. Brannstrom, who performed the transplant, said, “The baby is
fantastic, but it is even better to see the joy in the parents.”[19]
Hundreds of uterus transplants are taking place right now, giving hope to more
couples who wish to conceive.
Soon, uterus transplants may allow transgender women the ability to carry
children. Women born into male bodies may choose to undergo an aesthetical sex
change that involves surgically altering a person’s genitalia to allow a person
to match their biological anatomy with their gender identity. However, now with
advancements in uterus transplants it may soon be possible for transwomen to
also experience pregnancy.
It seems fitting for individuals who were assigned a male sex at birth to
aspire to motherhood when latter-day apostles teach “the highest and noblest
work in this life is that of a mother”[20]
and motherhood “is the highest, holiest service to be assumed by mankind.”
Please note that motherhood is to be assumed by mankind.[21]
Elder M. Russell Ballard also said, “There is no one perfect way to be
a good mother. Each situation is unique. Each mother has different challenges,
different skills and abilities . . . what matters is that a mother loves her
children deeply.”[22]
Stephanie Mott, transgender educator, elaborates on the desires of
mothers by saying, “If medical advances offer that possibility to transgender
women, it is no different than offering that possibility to cisgender women.”[23]
Also on the horizon are reproductive technologies that will allow two
women the ability to procreate using their own reproductive cells without the
need of sperm. That means that a lesbian couple will be able to produce their
own biological daughter and indeed create their own biological family unit.
Soon following would be children from two biological fathers.[24]
Perhaps more “light and knowledge”[25]
[26]
will allow technologists and physicians to create external wombs to gestate our
offspring with more precision, safety, and control than an unreliable uterus[27]
which might spontaneously abort or miscarry the fetus.
Some of these reproductive technologies may seem controversial, but
keep in mind that artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, and
surrogacy were once considered highly controversial, and are now accepted as
useful means of assisted reproduction for many faithful Latter-day Saint families.
The LDS Church Handbook of Instructions affirms “children conceived by
artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization are born in the covenant.”[28]
As reproductive technology rapidly progresses, some might see this as a threat to
traditional theology. However, I would contend that these technologies are a complimentary
manifestation of our deepest desires to be like God.
Mormon Theology
There are many biblical and theological references that would support
broadening our understanding of sexuality and procreation.
Conception is a controversial topic in the Bible. Mary, the mother of
Jesus, was a virgin. When the angel told her she was to conceive she replied,
“how shall this be, seeing I know not a man?” The angel replied, “The Holy
Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest will overshadow thee.”
[29]
Perhaps these passages could be interpreted as a spiritual in vitro fertilization,
as Mormon doctrine has affirmed the virginity of Mary.[30]
[31]
Mary’s cousin, Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist, was made a joyful
mother after being considered barren.[32]
When Elizabeth heard Mary’s greeting, the baby leaped in her womb, and
Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit.[33]
These highly unusual, controversial, and unorthodox pregnancies were considered
a worthy celebration of life.
The most notable example of same-sex creation is found in canonized
scripture and LDS temple rituals when women were entirely absent in accounts of
the creation. Adam’s embodiment was created by Elohim and Jehovah, two male
personifications. Two males created a male.[34]
Eve’s mortal body was also created by two males and formed from the rib of another
male, Adam. There is no account of her physical embodiment being produced by an
earthly mother.[35]
Surely celestial procreation involves far more efficient and
sophisticated methods of reproduction than our current mortal model. Insisting
that post-mortal reproduction would be congruent with a “natural” mortal model of
reproduction is in contradiction with scripture and is a limited interpretation
of creation.[36] [37]
In LDS theology, God organizes intelligences,[38]
for matter cannot be created nor destroyed.[39]
Mormons are regularly invited to become just like God when participating in
procreation. The reproductive
technologies I have discussed are often the manifestations of our desire to
organize matter into intelligences, to follow the examples of the scriptures, to
have families of our own, and to become like God.
And perhaps the next time a baby is born and the doctor shouts “It’s a
girl!”, we will enable that child to use her agency to determine her own
identity and destiny.
Notes and Citations
*Presented at Sunstone West Symposium on Saturday, January 30, 2016 in Berkeley, CA
[1] The
First Presidency and Council of the Twelve Apostles, “The Family: A
Proclamation to the World,” General
Relief Society Meeting (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, September 23, 1995), Paragraph 2.
[2]
Merriam-Webster Dictionary, s.v. “eternal,” accessed January 15, 2016. “(1)
having no beginning and no end in time; lasting forever (2) existing at all
times: always true or valid (3) seeming to last forever.”
[3] Joseph
Smith, Jr., “The King Follett Discourse,” General
Conference Meeting (Nauvoo: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, April 7, 1844). “God himself was once as we are now, and is an exalted
man.”
[4]
The first “Wear Pants to Church Day” was on Dec. 16, 2012. It was launched as
an effort to normalize the action many LDS women have taken to wear formal,
respectful dress pants to LDS church services. Mormon feminists, women and men,
wear dress pants and the color purple to their local LDS Church services for
many different reasons, but many of those who participate are concerned about
gender equality in the LDS Church. For more details, see http://pantstochurch.com.
[5] Judith
Butler, “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity,” (New York:
Routledge, 2007), Preface 1999, XV. “. . . performativity is not a singular
act, but a repetition and a ritual, which achieves its effects through its naturalization
in the context of a body, understood, in part, as a culturally sustained
temporal duration.”
[6] Dorland’s
Illustrated Medical Dictionary, s.v. “sex,” 32nd Edition.
Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012.
[7]
Exodus 3:2 KJV. “And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in
a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush: and he looked, and,
behold, the bush burned with fire, and the bush was not consumed.”
[8]
Matthew 3:16 KJV. “And Jesus, when he was baptized, went
up straightway out of the water: and, lo, the heavens were opened unto
him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and
lighting upon him:”
[9] 1 Timothy 1:17 KJV. “Now unto the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise God, be honour and glory for ever and ever. Amen.”
[10] David
L. Paulsen and Martin Pulido, “A Mother There: A Survey of Historical Teachings
about Mother in Heaven,” BYU Studies 50,
1 (2011): 79.
[11]
Genesis 1:27 KJV. “So God created man in his own image, in the image
of God created he him; male and female created he them.”
[12] Psalms 82:6 KJV. “I have said, Ye are gods; and all of you are children of the most High.”
[13] Romans 2:11 KJV. “For there is no respect of persons with God.”
[14] Genesis 1:28 KJV. “And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.”
[15] Brent
A. Barlow, “The Encyclopedia of Mormonism: Procreation,” (1992), accessed
January 17, 2016, http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Procreation.
[16] Homer
S. Ellsworth, “The Encyclopedia of Mormonism: Birth Control,” (1992), accessed
January 17, 2016, http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Birth_Control.
[17] Ian
Sample, “Three-parent babies explained: what are the concerns and are they justified?”
The Guardian, February 2, 2015, accessed
January 17, 2016, http://theguardian.com/science/2015/feb/02/three-parent-babies-explained.
[18]
Fox News, “Grandmother Acting as Surrogate Delivers Healthy Granddaughter,” Fox News, January 7, 2016, accessed
January 17, 2016, http://foxnews.com/health/2016/01/07/grandmother-acting-as-surrogate-delivers-healthy-granddaughter.html.
[19]
NPR International, “A First: Uterus Transplant Gives Parents a Healthy Baby,” NPR International, October 4, 2014, accessed
January 17, 2016, http://npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/10/04/353691555/a-first-uterus-transplant-gives-parents-a-healthy-baby.
[20] Russell
M. Nelson, “Our Sacred Duty to Honor Women,” LDS General Conference (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-day Saints, April 1999).
[21] James
R. Clark, “Messages of the First Presidency of The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, 6 vols. (1965-75),” 6:178. In 1935, the First Presidency stated,
“The true spirit of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints gives to
woman the highest place of honor in human life.”
[22] M.
Russell Ballard, “Daughters of God,” LDS
General Conference (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, April 2008).
[23] Jordyn
Taylor, “A Revolutionary Surgery Could Finally Let Trans Women Carry Children,”
Tech.Mic, November 20, 2015, accessed
January 17, 2016, http://mic.com/articles/128972/uterus-transplant-surgery-could-let-trans-women-have-children#.3UKq2J8Tj.
[24] Guy
Ringler, “Get Ready for Embryos From Two Men or Two Women,” TIME, March 18, 2015, accessed January
17, 2016, http://time.com/3748019/same-sex-couples-biological-children.
[25] Doctrine
& Covenants 50:24. “That which is of God is light; and he
that receiveth light, and continueth in God, receiveth
more light; and that light groweth brighter and brighter until the perfect
day.”
[26] N.
Eldon Tanner, “The Light of the Gospel,” LDS
General Conference (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, October 1977).
[27]
Blaire Ostler, “How a Mother Became a Transhumanist,” The Transfigurist, accessed June 6, 2015, http://www.transfigurist.org/2015/06/how-mother-became-transhumanist.html.
[28] “Handbook
1: Stake Presidents and Bishops,” (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-day Saints, 3.6.2). “Children conceived by artificial insemination or
in vitro fertilization are born in the covenant if their parents are already
sealed. If the children are born before their parents are sealed, they may be
sealed to their parents after their parents are sealed to each other.”
[29]
Luke 1:34-35 KJV. “Then said Mary unto the angel, How shall this be, seeing
I know not a man? And the angel answered and said unto her,
The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest
shall overshadow thee: therefore also that holy thing which shall be born of
thee shall be called the Son of God.”
[30] Brigham Young, "Character of God
and Christ, etc.," July 8, 1860, Journal of
Discourses, 8:115. “. . . there is no act, no
principle, no power belonging to the Deity that is not purely philosophical.
The birth of the Savior was as natural as are the births of our children; it
was the result of natural action. He partook of flesh and blood—was begotten of
his Father, as we were of our fathers.”
[31] Bruce
R. McConkie, “Mormon Doctrine,” 2nd edition, (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft,
1966), 822. "Our Lord is the only mortal person ever born to a virgin,
because he is the only person who ever had an immortal Father. Mary, his
mother, "was carried away in the Spirit" (1 Ne. 11:13-21), was
"overshadowed" by the Holy Ghost, and the conception which took place
"by the power of the Holy Ghost" resulted in the bringing forth of
the literal and personal Son of God the Father. Christ is not the Son of the
Holy Ghost, but of the Father (Doctrines of Salvation, vol. 1, pp. 18-20).
Modernistic teachings denying the virgin birth are utterly and completely
apostate and false.”
[32]
Luke 1:36 KJV. “And, behold, thy cousin Elisabeth, she hath also
conceived a son in her old age: and this is the sixth month with her,
who was called barren.”
[33]
Luke 1:41-42 KJV. “And it came to pass, that, when Elisabeth heard the
salutation of Mary, the babe leaped in her womb; and Elisabeth
was filled with the Holy Ghost: And she spake out with a loud voice,
and said, Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the
fruit of thy womb.”
[34]
Genesis 2:7 KJV. “And
the Lord God formed man of the dust of
the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life;
and man became a living soul.”
[35]
Genesis 2:21-25 KJV. “And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall
upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh
instead thereof; And the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man,
made he a woman, and brought her unto the man. And Adam said,
This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall
be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man. Therefore shall
a man leave his father and his mother, and
shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall
be one flesh. And they were both naked, the man and his wife,
and were not ashamed.”
[36] Taylor
G. Petrey, “Toward a Post-Heterosexual Mormon Theology,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, 44, 4 (Winter 2011): 110.
“If reproduction as we know it offers a model for heavenly reproduction so as
to exclude homosexual relationships by definition, then must we imagine that
male Gods deposit sperm in the bodies of female gods (who menstruate monthly
when they are not pregnant), that the pregnant female god gestates spirit
embryos for nine months and give birth to spirit bodies? While some LDS
thinkers imagine an eternally pregnant Heavenly Mother, I see no reason why we
much commit to this kind of literal pregnancy as the reason for divine female
figures.”
[37]
Linda P. Wilcox, “The Mormon Concept of a Mother in Heaven,” Sunstone (Sep/Oct 1980): 78-87.
[38] Spencer
W. Kimball, “The Miracle of Forgiveness,” (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1969), 5. “Our
spirit matter was eternal and co-existed with God, but it was organized into
spirit bodies by our Heavenly Father.”
[39]
Doctrine & Covenants 93:29. “Man was also in the beginning with
God. Intelligence, or the light of truth, was
not created or made, neither indeed can be.”
[40] 1
Corinthians 12:27 KJV. “Now ye are the body of Christ,
and members in particular.”
[41] 2
Nephi 26:33. “For none of these iniquities come of the Lord; for he doeth that
which is good among the children of men; and he doeth nothing save it be plain
unto the children of men; and he inviteth them all to come unto him and partake
of his goodness; and he denieth none that come unto him, black and
white, bond and free, male and female; and he remembereth
the heathen; and all are alike unto God, both Jew and Gentile.”
